Holidays often serve as a moment for introspection and the opportunity to reconnect with cherished loved ones. Despite the challenges presented by both our past and the uncertainties of the future, it is important to celebrate moments of joy and gratitude.
And as a proud mother, I take this moment to share a piece written by my son, an addition to the University of New Hampshire ALBION R. HODGDON HERBARIUM's collection. This collection is dedicated to preserving the diverse flora of New Hampshire and beyond.
Happy holidays!
Botanical Latin is the internationally recognized standard for naming and describing the world’s thousands of plant species. Botanists worldwide adhere to its specific and complex grammatical standards when contributing to the knowledge of plant diversity. Botanical Latin bridges the language barrier between botanists worldwide, allowing them to collaborate, no matter what their country of origin may be. For aspiring botanists, learning the rules of Botanical Latin can reveal the hidden meaning behind the names of plant species.
Although Botanical Latin has its origin in the Latin language, it is important to understand that Botanical Latin is not the Latin of antiquity. It has acquired the characteristics of a highly specialized dialect of Latin, or Neo-Latin, the Renaissance-era simplified form of Latin that is primarily used in writing. Since Botanical Latin is not used in everyday contexts, the wide assortment of Latin vocabulary has been repurposed for describing plants exclusively. Thus, Botanical Latin often uses Latin words in a less-literal sense. Botanical Latin essentially inherits the Latin grammar and vocabulary but only uses it for one specific purpose.
The linguistic origins of Botanical Latin date back to ancient Greece. Among others, the Greek author Theophrastus wrote extensive plant descriptions. The names and descriptions of plants created by the Greeks were translated into Latin by the ancient Romans. Pliny the Elder, in particular, translated numerous Greek plant names in his historically valuable work Historia Naturalis. Pliny used a wide range of vocabulary to describe plants, mostly focusing on the parts of plants that had practical uses like stems, shoots and fruits. Ancient Roman descriptions of plants became the foundation for Botanical Latin during the Middle Ages and Renaissance. At this time, using Latin for science was the standard, as there was no other language which was used so ubiquitously in writing that could be understood by scientists across Europe.
Carl Linnaeus, considered the “father of modern taxonomy,” formalized Botanical Latin and distinguished it from other forms of written Latin. Linnaeus was the first to use the binomial naming scheme in taxonomy, which unites terms for genus and species. Linnaeus even created the binomial name for humans, Homo sapiens (‘wise man’). In his work Species Plantarum, Linnaeus provides a binomial for every plant species known to him, organized into genera.
The tradition of Botanical Latin has continued into the present day. Before English became the de facto international language, using Latin when describing new plant species was nothing out of the ordinary. Now, Botanical Latin is largely a formality, cemented as a standard by centuries of precedence. Until 2012, the International Botanical Conference (IBC) required the use of Botanical Latin for names and descriptions of new plant species. Now the IBC permits new species descriptions (but not names) in either Latin or English. This makes it easier for modern botanists to report their findings, as most modern botanists are not proficient in Latin.
The grammar of Botanical Latin does not differ from other forms of Latin. Like other forms of Latin, the vocabulary of Botanical Latin includes nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Since Botanical Latin is not only used to name plant species, but also to write their descriptions, all these parts-of-speech are necessary. Verbs are conjugated with word-endings corresponding to different tenses, person, and number. Unlike English, Latin nouns and adjectives use different word-endings depending on the context in which the word is being used. Nominative case is used when a word is the subject of a sentence. Accusative case is generally used when a word is the direct object in a sentence. Genitive case generally substitutes the word ‘of’ in English. For example, the word flos means ‘flower’; the genitive case of flos would be floris (‘of the flower’). Other cases include the vocative case (used when addressing someone or something, like calling out a name), the dative case (used similarly as the indirect object in English, generally corresponding to the word ‘for’), and the ablative case (used in a variety of contexts, but loosely means ‘with’).
Names of taxonomic groupings follow other patterns which are not solely grammatical. All plant phyla end in the suffix -phyta, which originates from the Greek word phuta (‘plants’). Classes end in -phyceae for algae, from the ancient Greek word phukos (‘seaweed’). Other classes end in -opsida, from the ancient Greek word opsis (‘appearance’). Orders end in -ales, the Latin equivalent of the English suffix ‘-al’. All families end in -aceae, which roughly means ‘resembling’. Genus and species names do not have specific suffixes. Genera are Latin nouns, and species are usually adjectives. Sometimes a species name is a noun fulfilling the role of an adjective. If the species name is an adjective in the grammatical sense, it must agree with the genus name in gender.
Now that the basic rules have been established, we can look at a real-world example of a plant species, present at the Hodgdon herbarium. The northern lady fern, Athyrium angustum, is abundant in the forests of New Hampshire. The genus name Athyrium is derived from the prefix a- (‘without’) and the word thyrium, a latinization of the Greek wordthyreos (‘shield’). The namesake of the genus is its seemingly invisible indusia, which cover the spore-producing sori on the undersides of fern leaves. The species name angustummeans ‘narrow’ and differentiates the northern lady fern from other lady ferns. The namesake of the species is its narrow fronds, or leaf structures, compared to other lady ferns.
For a more in-depth look at Botanical Latin, its history, and conventions refer to Botanical Latin by William T. Stearn, an essential reference handbook for botanists for decades. Stearn’s Botanical Latin is available online through Archive.org or Amazon.com. A copy also resides at the UNH Albion R. Hodgdon Herbarium.
Excellent article, Mindi! You can be justifiably proud of Kegan. I’m sending this to my son-in-law, a Spanish teacher, who is interested in plants as well as language. Merry Christmas to your entire family!